Everything in biology ultimately boils down to food and sex. To survive as an individual, you need food. To survive as a species, you need sex.
Not surprisingly, then, the age-old question of why giraffes have long necks has centered around food and sex. After debating this question for the past 150 years, biologists still cannot agree on which of these two factors was the most important in the evolution of the giraffe’s neck. In the past three years, my colleagues and I have been trying to get to the bottom of this question.
Necks for sex
In the 19th century, biologists Charles Darwin and Jean Baptiste Lamarck both speculated that giraffes’ long necks helped them reach acacia leaves high up in the trees, though they likely weren’t observing actual giraffe behavior when they came up with this theory. Several decades later, when scientists started observing giraffes in Africa, a group of biologists came up with an alternative theory based on sex and reproduction.
These pioneering giraffe biologists noticed how male giraffes, standing side by side, used their long necks to swing their heads and club each other. The researchers called this behavior “neck-fighting” and guessed that it helped the giraffes prove their dominance over each other and woo mates. Males with the longest necks would win these contests and, in turn, boost their reproductive success. That favorability, the scientists predicted, drove the evolution of long necks.
Since its inception, the necks-for-sex sexual selection hypothesis has overshadowed Darwin’s and Lamarck’s necks-for-food hypothesis.
The necks-for-sex hypothesis predicts that males should have longer necks than females since only males use them to fight, and indeed, they do. But adult male giraffes are also about 30% to 50% larger than female giraffes. All of their body components are bigger. So, my team wanted to find out if males have proportionally longer necks when accounting for their overall stature, comprised of their head, neck, and forelegs.
Necks not for sex?
But it’s not easy to measure giraffe body proportions. For one, their necks grow disproportionately faster during the first six to eight years of their life. And in the wild, you can’t tell exactly how old an individual animal is. To get around these problems, we measured body proportions in captive Masai giraffes in North American zoos. Here, we knew the exact age of the giraffes and could then compare this data with the body proportions of wild giraffes that we knew confidently were older than 8 years.
To our surprise, we found that adult female giraffes have proportionally longer necks than males, which contradicts the necks-for-sex hypothesis. We also found that adult female giraffes have proportionally longer body trunks, while adult males have proportionally longer forelegs and thicker necks.
Giraffe babies don’t have any of these sex-specific body proportion differences. They only appear as giraffes are reaching adulthood.
Finding that female giraffes have proportionally both longer necks and longer body trunks led us to propose that females, and not males, drove the evolution of the giraffe’s long neck, and not for sex but for food and reproduction. Our theory is in agreement with Darwin and Lamarck that food was the major driver for the evolution of the giraffe’s neck but with an emphasis on female reproductive success.
A shape to die for
Giraffes are notoriously picky eaters and browse on fresh leaves, flowers, and seed pods. Female giraffes especially need enough to eat because they spend most of their adult lives either pregnant or providing milk to their calves.
Females tend to use their long necks to probe deep into bushes and trees to find the most nutritious food. By contrast, males tend to feed high in trees by fully extending their necks vertically. Females need proportionally longer trunks to grow calves that can be well over 6 feet tall at birth.
For males, I’d guess that their proportionally longer forelegs are an adaptation that allows them to mount females more easily during sex. While we found that their necks might not be as proportionally long as females’ necks are, they are thicker. That’s probably an adaptation that helps them win neck fights.
Fewer permits were issued and fewer climbers died on Mount Everest in 2024 than 2023.
The Nepalese army says it has removed eleven tonnes of rubbish, four corpses and one skeleton from Mount Everest and two other Himalayan peaks this year.
It took troops 55 days to recover the rubbish and bodies from Everest, Nuptse and Lhotse mountains.
It is estimated that more than fifty tonnes of waste and more than 200 bodies cover Everest.
The army began conducting an annual clean-up of the mountain, which is often described as the world’s highest garbage dump, in 2019 during concerns about overcrowding and climbers queueing in dangerous conditions to reach the summit.
The five clean-ups have collected 119 tonnes of rubbish, 14 human corpses and some skeletons, the army says.
This year, authorities aimed to reduce rubbish and improve rescues by making climbers wear tracking devices and bring back their own poo.
In the future, the government plans to create a mountain rangers team to monitor rubbish and put more money toward its collection, Nepal’s Department of Tourism director of mountaineering Rakesh Gurung told the BBC.
For the spring climbing season that ended in May, the government issued permits to 421 climbers, down from a record-breaking 478 last year. Those numbers do not include Nepalese guides. In total, an estimated 600 people climbed the mountain this year.
This year, eight climbers died or went missing, compared to 19 last year.
A Brit, Daniel Paterson, and his Nepalese guide, Pastenji Sherpa, are among those missing after being hit by falling ice on 21 May.
Mr Paterson’s family started a fundraiser to hire a search team to find them, but said in an update on 4 June that recovery “is not possible at this time” because of the location and danger of the operation.
Mr Gurung said the number of permits was lower this year because of the global economic situation, China also issuing permits and the national election in India which reduced the number of climbers from that country. Source: https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cq5539lj1pqo
For female athletes, the impact of the menstrual cycle on physical performance has been a topic of much discussion. But what about the mental side of the game? A groundbreaking new study suggests that certain cognitive abilities, particularly those related to spatial awareness and anticipation, may indeed ebb and flow with a woman’s cycle.
The findings, in a nutshell
Researchers from University College London tested nearly 400 participants on a battery of online cognitive tasks designed to measure reaction times, attention, visuospatial functions (like 3D mental rotation), and timing anticipation. The study, published in Neuropsychologia, included men, women on hormonal contraception, and naturally cycling women.
Fascinatingly, the naturally cycling women exhibited better overall cognitive performance during menstruation compared to any other phase of their cycle. This held true even though these women reported poorer mood and more physical symptoms during their period. In contrast, performance dipped during the late follicular phase (just before ovulation) and the luteal phase (after ovulation).
“What is surprising is that the participant’s performance was better when they were on their period, which challenges what women, and perhaps society more generally, assume about their abilities at this particular time of the month,” says Dr. Flaminia Ronca, first author of the study from UCL, in a university release.
“I hope that this will provide the basis for positive conversations between coaches and athletes about perceptions and performance: how we feel doesn’t always reflect how we perform.”
This study provides compelling preliminary evidence that sport-relevant cognitive skills may indeed fluctuate across the menstrual cycle, with a surprising boost during menstruation itself. If confirmed in future studies, this could have implications for understanding injury risk and optimizing mental training in female athletes.
Importantly, there was a striking mismatch between women’s perceptions and their actual performance. Many felt their thinking was impaired during their period when, in fact, it was enhanced. This points to the power of negative expectations and the importance of educating athletes about their unique physiology.
There can be a lot of inconsistent dietary advice when it comes to gut health, but those that says that eating lots of sugar is harmful tend to be the most consistent of them all. Scientists from the University of Pittsburgh are now showing that consuming excess sugar disrupts cells that keep the colon healthy in mice with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).
“The prevalence of IBD is rising around the world, and it’s rising the fastest in cultures with industrialized, urban lifestyles, which typically have diets high in sugar,” says senior author Timothy Hand, Ph.D., associate professor of pediatrics and immunology at Pitt’s School of Medicine and UPMC Children’s Hospital of Pittsburgh. “Too much sugar isn’t good for a variety of reasons, and our study adds to that evidence by showing how sugar may be harmful to the gut. For patients with IBD, high-density sugar — found in things like soda and candy — might be something to stay away from.”
In this study, researchers fed mice either a standard or high-sugar diet, and then mimicked IBD symptoms by exposing them to a chemical called DSS, which damages the colon.
Shockingly, all of the mice that ate a high-sugar diet died within nine days. All of the animals that ate a standard diet lived until the end of the 14-day experiment. To figure out where things went wrong, the team looked for answers inside the colon. Typically, the colon is lined with a layer of epithelial cells that are arranged with finger-like projections called crypts. They are frequently replenished by dividing stem cells to keep the colon healthy.
“The colon epithelium is like a conveyor belt,” explains Hand in a media release. “It takes five days for cells to travel through the circuit from the bottom to the top of the crypt, where they are shed into the colon and defecated out. You essentially make a whole new colon every five days.”
This system collapsed in mice fed a high-sugar diet
In fact, the protective layer of cells was completely gone in some animals, filling the colon with blood and immune cells. This shows that sugar may directly impact the colon, rather than the harm being dependent on the gut microbiome, which is what the team originally thought.
To compare the findings to human colons, the researchers used poppy seed-sized intestinal cultures that could be grown in a lab dish. They found that as sugar concentrations increased, fewer cultures developed, which suggests that sugar hinders cell devision.
“We found that stem cells were dividing much more slowly in the presence of sugar — likely too slow to repair damage to the colon,” says Hand. “The other strange thing we noticed was that the metabolism of the cells was different. These cells usually prefer to use fatty acids, but after being grown in high-sugar conditions, they seemed to get locked into using sugar.”
Hand adds that these findings may be key to strengthening existing links between sweetened drinks and worse IBD outcomes.
We often think of war, terrorism, and deadly diseases as the greatest threats to human life. But what if the real danger is something we encounter every day, something that’s in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and even in the noise that surrounds us? A new study published in the Journal of the American College of Cardiology reveals a startling truth: pollution, in all its forms, is now a greater health threat than war, terrorism, malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, drugs, and alcohol combined. Specifically, researchers estimate that manmade pollutants and climate change contribute to a staggering seven million deaths globally each year.
“Every year around 20 million people worldwide die from cardiovascular disease with pollutants playing an ever-increasing role,” explains Professor Jason Kovacic, Director and CEO of the Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute in Australia, in a media release.
The findings, in a nutshell
The culprits behind this global death toll aren’t just the obvious ones like air pollution from car exhausts or factory chimneys. The study, conducted by researchers from prestigious institutions worldwide, shines a light on lesser-known villains: soil pollution, noise pollution, light pollution, and even exposure to toxic chemicals in our homes.
Think about your daily life. You wake up after a night’s sleep disrupted by the glow of streetlights and the hum of late-night traffic. On your way to work, you’re exposed to car fumes and the blaring horns of impatient drivers. At home, you might be unknowingly using products containing untested chemicals. All these factors, the study suggests, are chipping away at your heart health.
“Pollutants have reached every corner of the globe and are affecting every one of us,” Prof. Kovacic warns. “We are witnessing unprecedented wildfires, soaring temperatures, unacceptable road noise and light pollution in our cities and exposure to untested toxic chemicals in our homes.”
How do these pollutants harm our hearts?
Air Pollution: When you inhale smoke from a wildfire or exhaust fumes, these toxins travel deep into your lungs, enter your bloodstream, and then circulate throughout your body. It’s like sending tiny invaders into your system, causing damage wherever they go, including your heart.
Noise and Light Pollution: Ever tried sleeping with a streetlight shining through your window or with noisy neighbors? These disruptions do more than just annoy you—they mess up your sleep patterns. Poor sleep can lead to inflammation in your body, raise your blood pressure, and even cause weight gain. All of these are risk factors for heart disease.
Extreme Heat: Think of your heart as a car engine. On a scorching hot day, your engine works harder to keep cool. Similarly, during a heatwave, your heart has to work overtime. This extra strain, coupled with dehydration and reduced blood volume from sweating, can lead to serious issues like acute kidney failure.
Chemical Exposure: Many household items — from non-stick pans to water-resistant clothing — contain chemicals that haven’t been thoroughly tested for safety. Prof. Kovacic points out, “There are hundreds of thousands of chemicals that haven’t even been tested for their safety or toxicity, let alone their impact on our health.”
The statistics are alarming. Air pollution alone is linked to over seven million premature deaths per year, with more than half due to heart problems. During heatwaves, the risk of heat-related cardiovascular deaths can spike by over 10%. In the U.S., exposure to wildfire smoke has surged by 77% since 2002.
In the lush forests of India’s Arunachal Pradesh, a team of intrepid researchers has made a startling discovery: a never-before-seen species of ant that sparkles like a brilliant blue gemstone. The remarkable find marks the first new species of its genus to be identified in India in over 120 years.
Dubbing the species Paraparatrechina neela, the fascinating discovery was made by entomologists Dr. Priyadarsanan Dharma Rajan and Ramakrishnaiah Sahanashree, from the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) in Bengaluru, along with Aswaj Punnath from the University of Florida. The name “neela” comes from Indian languages, meaning the color blue. And for good reason – this ant sports an eye-catching iridescent blue exoskeleton, unlike anything seen before in its genus.
Paraparatrechina is a widespread group of ants found across Asia, Africa, Australia and the Pacific. They are typically small, measuring just a few millimeters in length. Before this discovery, India was home to only one known species in the genus, Paraparatrechina aseta, which was described way back in 1902.
The researchers collected the dazzling P. neela specimens during an expedition in 2022 to the Siang Valley in the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas. Fittingly, this trip was part of a series called the “Siang Expeditions” – a project aiming to retrace the steps of a historic 1911-12 expedition that documented the region’s biodiversity.
Paraparatrechina neela — the blue ant discovered in India’s Himalayas. (Credit: Sahanashree R)
Over a century later, the area still holds surprises. The team found the ants living in a tree hole in a patch of secondary forest, at an altitude of around 800 meters. After carefully extracting a couple of specimens with an aspirator device, they brought them back to the lab for a closer look under the microscope. Their findings are published in the journal ZooKeys.
Beyond its “captivating metallic-blue color,” a unique combination of physical features distinguishes P. neela from its relatives. The body is largely blue, but the legs and antennae fade to a brownish-white. Compared to the light brown, rectangular head of its closest Indian relative, P. aseta, the sapphire ant has a subtriangular head. It also has one less tooth on its mandibles and a distinctly raised section on its propodeum (the first abdominal segment that’s fused to the thorax).
So what’s behind the blue? While pigments provide color for some creatures, in insects, hues like blue are usually the result of microscopic structural arrangements that reflect light in particular ways. Different layers and shapes of the exoskeleton can interact with light to produce shimmering, iridescent effects. This has evolved independently in many insect groups, but is very rare in ants.
The function of the blue coloration remains a mystery for now. In other animals, such striking hues can serve many possible roles – from communication and camouflage to thermoregulation.
“This vibrant feature raises intriguing questions. Does it help in communication, camouflage, or other ecological interactions? Delving into the evolution of this conspicuous coloration and its connections to elevation and the biology of P. neela presents an exciting avenue for research,” the authors write.
A view of Siang Valley. (Credit: Ranjith AP)
The Eastern Himalayas are known to be a biodiversity hotspot, but remain underexplored by scientists. Finding a new species of ant, in a genus that specializes in tiny, inconspicuous creatures, hints at the many more discoveries that likely await in the region’s forests. Who knows – maybe there are entire rainbow-hued colonies of ants hidden in the treetops!
Babies with higher stress hormone levels late in their mother’s pregnancy can end up having trouble falling asleep, researchers explain. The sleep research suggests that measuring cortisol during the third trimester can predict infant sleep patterns up to seven months after a baby’s birth.
Babies often wake up in the middle of the night and have trouble falling asleep. A team from the University of Denver says one possible but unexplored reason for this is how well the baby’s hypothalamic-adrenal-pituitary (HPA) system is working. The HPA system is well-known for regulating the stress response and has previously been linked with sleep disorders when it’s not working properly. Cortisol is the end product produced from the HPA axis.
What is cortisol?
Cortisol is a steroid hormone produced by the adrenal glands, which are located on top of each kidney. It plays a crucial role in several body functions, including:
Regulation of metabolism: Cortisol helps regulate the metabolism of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, releasing energy and managing how the body uses these macronutrients.
Stress response: Often referred to as the “stress hormone,” cortisol is released in response to stress and low blood-glucose concentration. It helps the body manage and cope with stress by altering immune system responses and suppressing non-essential functions in a fight-or-flight situation.
Anti-inflammatory effects: Cortisol has powerful anti-inflammatory capabilities, helping to reduce inflammation and assist in healing.
Blood pressure regulation: It helps in maintaining blood pressure and cardiovascular function.
Circadian rhythm influence: Cortisol levels fluctuate throughout the day, typically peaking in the morning and gradually falling to their lowest level at night.
Collecting hair samples is one way to measure fetal cortisol levels in the final trimester of pregnancy.
“Although increases in cortisol across pregnancy are normal and important for preparing the fetus for birth, our findings suggest that higher cortisol levels during late pregnancy could predict the infant having trouble falling asleep,” says lead co-author Melissa Nevarez-Brewster in a media release. “We are excited to conduct future studies to better understand this link.”
The team collected hair cortisol samples from 70 infants during the first few days after birth. Approximately 57% of the infants were girls. When each child was seven months-old, parents completed a sleep questionnaire including questions such as how long it took on average for the children to fall asleep, how long babies stayed awake at night, and the number of times the infants woke up in the middle of the night. The researchers also collected data on each infant’s gestational age at birth and their family’s income.
COVID-19 taught most people that the line between tolerable and toxic stress – defined as persistent demands that lead to disease – varies widely. But, some people will age faster and die younger from toxic stressors than others.
So, how much stress is too much, and what can you do about it?
I’m a psychiatrist specializing in psychosomatic medicine, which is the study and treatment of people who have physical and mental illnesses. My research is focused on people who have psychological conditions and medical illnesses, as well as those whose stress exacerbates their health issues.
I’ve spent my career studying mind-body questions and training physicians to treat mental illness in primary care settings. My forthcoming book is titled “Toxic Stress: How Stress is Killing Us and What We Can Do About It.”
A 2023 study of stress and aging over the life span – one of the first studies to confirm this piece of common wisdom – found that four measures of stress all speed up the pace of biological aging in midlife. It also found that persistent high-stress ages people in a comparable way to the effects of smoking and low socioeconomic status, two well-established risk factors for accelerated aging.
The difference between good stress and the toxic kind
Good stress – a demand or challenge you readily cope with – is good for your health. In fact, the rhythm of these daily challenges, including feeding yourself, cleaning up messes, communicating with one another, and carrying out your job, helps to regulate your stress response system and keep you fit.
Toxic stress, on the other hand, wears down your stress response system in ways that have lasting effects, as psychiatrist and trauma expert Bessel van der Kolk explains in his bestselling book “The Body Keeps the Score.”
The earliest effects of toxic stress are often persistent symptoms such as headache, fatigue, or abdominal pain that interfere with overall functioning. After months of initial symptoms, a full-blown illness with a life of its own – such as migraine headaches, asthma, diabetes, or ulcerative colitis – may surface.
When we are healthy, our stress response systems are like an orchestra of organs that miraculously tune themselves and play in unison without our conscious effort – a process called self-regulation. But when we are sick, some parts of this orchestra struggle to regulate themselves, which causes a cascade of stress-related dysregulation that contributes to other conditions.
For instance, in the case of diabetes, the hormonal system struggles to regulate sugar. With obesity, the metabolic system has a difficult time regulating energy intake and consumption. With depression, the central nervous system develops an imbalance in its circuits and neurotransmitters that makes it difficult to regulate mood, thoughts and behaviors.
‘Treating’ stress
Though stress neuroscience in recent years has given researchers like me new ways to measure and understand stress, you may have noticed that in your doctor’s office, the management of stress isn’t typically part of your treatment plan.
Most doctors don’t assess the contribution of stress to a patient’s common chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and obesity, partly because stress is complicated to measure and partly because it is difficult to treat. In general, doctors don’t treat what they can’t measure.
Stress neuroscience and epidemiology have also taught researchers recently that the chances of developing serious mental and physical illnesses in midlife rise dramatically when people are exposed to trauma or adverse events, especially during vulnerable periods such as childhood.
Over the past 40 years in the U.S., the alarming rise in rates of diabetes, obesity, depression, PTSD, suicide, and addictions points to one contributing factor that these different illnesses share: toxic stress.
Toxic stress increases the risk for the onset, progression, complications, or early death from these illnesses.
Suffering from toxic stress
Because the definition of toxic stress varies from one person to another, it’s hard to know how many people struggle with it. One starting point is the fact that about 16% of adults report having been exposed to four or more adverse events in childhood. This is the threshold for higher risk for illnesses in adulthood.
Research dating back to before the COVID-19 pandemic also shows that about 19% of adults in the U.S. have four or more chronic illnesses. If you have even one chronic illness, you can imagine how stressful four must be.
And about 12% of the U.S. population lives in poverty, the epitome of a life in which demands exceed resources every day. For instance, if a person doesn’t know how they will get to work each day or doesn’t have a way to fix a leaking water pipe or resolve a conflict with their partner, their stress response system can never rest. One or any combination of threats may keep them on high alert or shut them down in a way that prevents them from trying to cope at all.
Add to these overlapping groups all those who struggle with harassing relationships, homelessness, captivity, severe loneliness, living in high-crime neighborhoods, or working in or around noise or air pollution. It seems conservative to estimate that about 20% of people in the U.S. live with the effects of toxic stress.
The extreme heat can affect overall health, increasing the risk of heart diseases, brain disorders, and other organ issues.
गर्मियों में कैसे रखें आंखों का ख्याल | Image:Freepik
As heatwaves sweep across various regions, there has been a noticeable increase in eye stroke cases. This condition, also known as retinal artery occlusion, can cause sudden vision loss and is comparable to a brain stroke in its seriousness.
Impact of heatwaves on eye health
The extreme heat can affect overall health, increasing the risk of heart diseases, brain disorders, and other organ issues. Notably, it can also lead to eye strokes due to dehydration and heightened blood pressure. Dehydration during hot weather makes the blood more prone to clotting, while high temperatures can exacerbate cardiovascular problems, raising the risk of arterial blockages.
Eye stroke
An eye stroke occurs when blood flow to the retina is obstructed, depriving it of oxygen and nutrients. This can cause severe retinal damage in minutes. Dehydration from heatwaves thickens the blood, making clots more likely, while heat stress can worsen cardiovascular conditions, further increasing eye stroke risk.
Signs and symptoms
Sudden Vision Loss: The most common symptom, this can be partial or complete, and typically painless.
Visual Disturbances: Sudden dimming or blurring of vision, where central vision is affected but peripheral vision remains intact.
Preventive measures
Stay Hydrated: Ensure adequate fluid intake to prevent dehydration.
Avoid Peak Sun Hours: Limit exposure to the sun during the hottest parts of the day.
Manage Chronic Conditions: Keep blood pressure and other chronic conditions under control.
TImmediate Medical Attentioreatment optionsn: Urgency is crucial as delays can lead to permanent vision loss.
Trauma, abuse, and neglect — in the current cultural landscape, it’s not hard to find a myriad of discussions on these topics. But with so many people chiming in on the conversation, it’s more important now than ever to listen to what experts on the topic have to say. As we begin to understand more and more about the effects of growing up experiencing trauma and abuse, we also begin to understand that the effects of these experiences are more complex and wide-ranging than we had ever imagined.
Recent studies in the field of childhood trauma and abuse have found that these experiences can affect a wide range of aspects of our adult life. In fact, even seemingly disparate topics ranging from your stance on vaccinations to the frequency with which we experience headaches, to the types of judgments that we make about others are impacted by histories of abuse, trauma, or neglect.
Clearly, the effects of a traumatic childhood go far beyond the time when you are living in an abusive or unhealthy environment. A recent study reports that early childhood traumas can impact health outcomes decades later, potentially following you for the rest of your life. With many new and surprising effects of childhood trauma being discovered every day, it’s no wonder that so many people are interested in what exactly trauma is and how it can affect us.
So, what are the long-term ramifications of childhood neglect? For an answer to that question, StudyFinds sat down with Michael Menard, inventor-turned-author of the upcoming book, “The Kite That Couldn’t Fly: And Other May Avenue Stories,” to discuss the lesser-understood side of trauma and how it can affect us long into our adult lives.
Here is his list of five hidden effects of trauma, and some of them just might surprise you.
1. Unstable Relationships
For individuals with childhood trauma, attachment issues are an often overlooked form of collateral damage. Through infancy and early childhood, a person’s attachment style is developed largely through familial bonds and is then carried into every relationship from platonic peers to romantic partners. When this is lovingly and healthily developed, this is usually a positive thing. But for children and adults with a background of neglect, it often leads to difficulty in finding, developing, and keeping healthy relationships.
As Menard explains it, a childhood spent feeling invisible left scars on his adult relationship patterns. “As a child, I felt that I didn’t exist. No matter what I did, it was not recognized, so there was no reinforcement,” he says. “As a young adult, I panicked when I got ignored. I was afraid that everyone was going to leave. I also felt that I would drive people away in relationships. I would only turn to others when I needed emotional support, never when things were good. When things were good, I could handle them myself. I didn’t need anybody.”
Childhood trauma often creates adults who struggle to be emotionally vulnerable, to process feelings of anger and disappointment, and to accept support from others. And with trust as one of the most vital components of longterm, healthy relationships, it’s clear where difficulty may arise. But Menard emphasizes that a childhood of neglect should not have to mean a lifetime of distant or unstable relationships. “A large percentage of the people that I’ve talked to about struggles in their life, they think it’s life. But we were born to be healthy, happy, prosperous, and anything that is taking away from that is not good,” he says.
“The lesser known [effects] I would say are the things that cause disruption in relationships,” Menard adds. “The divorce rate is about 60%. Where does that come from? It comes from disruption and unhappiness between two people. Lack of respect, love, trust, sacrifice. And if you come into that relationship broken from childhood trauma and you don’t even know it, I’d say that’s not well known.”
2. Physical Health Issues
The most commonly discussed long-term effects of childhood neglect are usually mental and emotional ones. But believe it or not, a background of trauma can actually impact your physical health. From diabetes to cardiac disease, the toll of childhood trauma can turn distinctly physical. “Five of the top 10 diseases that kill us have been scientifically proven to come from childhood trauma,” says Menard. “I’ve got high blood pressure. I go to the doctor, and they can’t figure it out. I have diabetes, hypertension, obesity, cardiac disease, COPD—it’s now known that they have a high probability that they originated from childhood trauma or neglect. Silent killers.”
In some cases, the physical ramifications of childhood trauma may be due to long-term medical neglect. What was once a treatable issue can become a much larger and potentially permanent problem. In Menard’s case, untreated illness in his childhood meant open heart surgery in his adult years. “I’m now 73. When I was 70, my aortic valve closed. I had to have four open heart surgeries in two months — almost died three times,” he explains. “Now, can I blame that on childhood trauma? I can, because I had strep throat repeatedly as a child without medication. One episode turned into rheumatic fever that damaged my aortic valve. 50 years later, I’m having my chest opened up.”
From loss of sleep to chronic pain, the physical manifestations of a neglectful childhood can be painful and difficult. But beyond that, they often go entirely overlooked. For many people, this can feel frustrating and invalidating. For others, they may not know themselves that their emotional pain could be having physical ramifications. As Menard puts it, “things are happening to people that they think [are just] part of life, and [they’re] not.”
3. Mental Health Struggles
Growing up in an abusive or neglectful environment can have a variety of negative effects on children. However, one of the most widely discussed and understood consequences is that of their mental health. “Forty-one percent of all depression in the United States is caused by childhood trauma or comes from childhood trauma,” notes Menard. And this connection between trauma and mental illness goes far beyond just depression. In fact, a recent study found a clear link between experiences of childhood trauma and various mental illnesses including anxiety, depression, and substance use disorders.
Of course, depression and anxiety are also compounded when living in an environment lacking the proper love, support, and encouragement that a child deserves to grow up in. For Menard, growing up in a home with 16 people did little to keep the loneliness at bay. “I just thought it was normal—being left out,” Menard says. “We all need to trust, and we need to rely on people. But if you become an island and self-reliant, not depending on others, you become isolated.”
In some cases, the impact of mental health can also do physical damage. In one example, Menard notes an increased likelihood for eating disorders. “Mine came from not having enough food,” he says. “I get that, but there are all types of eating disorders that come from emotional trauma.”
4. Acting Out
For most children, the model set by the behavior of their parents lays the foundation for their own personal growth and development. However, kids who lack these positive examples of healthy behavior are less likely to develop important traits like empathy, self-control, and responsibility. Menard is acutely aware of this, stating, “Good self-care and self-discipline are taught. It goes down the drain when you experience emotional trauma.” Children who are not given proper role models for behavior will often instead mimic the anger and aggressive behaviors prevalent in emotionally neglectful or abusive households.
“My wife is a school teacher and she could tell immediately through the aggressive behavior of even a first grader that there were multiple problems,” adds Menard. However, his focus is less on pointing fingers at the person who is displaying these negative behaviors, and more about understanding what made them act this way in the first place. “It’s not about what’s wrong with you, it’s about what happened to you.”
However, for many, the negative influence extends beyond simple bad behavior. Menard also describes being taught by his father to steal steaks from the restaurant where he worked at the age of 12. This was not only what his father encouraged him to do, but also what seemed completely appropriate to him because of how he had been raised. “I’d bring steaks home for him, and when he got off the factory shift at midnight, that seemed quite okay,” Menard says. “It seemed quite normal. And it’s horrible. Everybody’s searching to try to heal that wound and they don’t know why they’re doing it.”
The Third Thumb worn by different users (CREDIT: Dani Clode Design / The Plasticity Lab)
Will human evolution eventually give us a sixth finger? If it does, a new study is showing that we’ll have no trouble using an extra thumb! It may sound like science fiction, but researchers have shown that people of all ages can quickly learn how to use an extra, robotic third thumb.
The findings, in a nutshell
A team at the University of Cambridge developed a wearable, prosthetic thumb device and had nearly 600 people from diverse backgrounds try it out. The results in the journal Science Robotics were astonishing: 98% of participants could manipulate objects using the third thumb within just one minute of picking it up and getting brief instructions.
The researchers put people through simple tasks like moving pegs from a board into a basket using only the robotic thumb. They also had people use the device along with their real hand to manipulate oddly-shaped foam objects, testing hand-eye coordination. People, both young and old, performed similarly well on the tasks after just a little practice. This suggests we may be surprisingly adept at integrating robotic extensions into our sense of body movement and control.
While you might expect those with hand-intensive jobs or hobbies to excel, that wasn’t really the case. Most everyone caught on quickly, regardless of gender, handedness, age, or experience with manual labor. The only groups that did noticeably worse were the very youngest children under age 10 and the oldest seniors. Even so, the vast majority in those age brackets still managed to use the third thumb effectively with just brief training.
Professor Tamar Makin and designer Dani Clode have been working on Third Thumb for several years. One of their initial tests in 2021 demonstrated that the 3D-printed prosthetic thumb could be a helpful extension of the human hand. In a test with 20 volunteers, it even helped participants complete tasks while blindfolded!
Designer Dani Clode with her ‘Third Thumb’ device. (Credit: Dani Clode)
How did scientists test the third thumb?
For their inclusive study, the Cambridge team recruited a wide range of 596 participants between the ages of three and 96. The group comprised an intentionally diverse mix of demographics to ensure the robotic device could be effectively used by all types of people.
The Third Thumb device itself consists of a rigid, controllable robotic digit worn on the opposite side of the hand from the normal thumb. It’s operated by foot sensors – pressing with the right foot pulls the robotic thumb inward across the palm while the left foot pushes it back out toward the fingertips. Releasing foot pressure returns the thumb to its resting position.
During testing at a science exhibition, each participant received up to one minute of instructions on how to control the device and perform one of two simple manual tasks. The first had them individually pick up pegs from a board using just the third thumb and drop as many as possible into a basket within 60 seconds. The second required them to manipulate a set of irregularly-shaped foam objects using the robotic thumb in conjunction with their real hand and fingers.
Detailed data was collected on every participant’s age, gender, handedness, and even occupations or hobbies that could point to exceptional manual dexterity skills. This allowed the researchers to analyze how user traits and backgrounds affected performance with the third thumb device after just a minute’s practice. The stark consistency across demographics proved its intuitive usability.
From the surface to the inner core, Earth has several layers that continue to be a mystery to science. Now, it turns out one of these layers may consist of material from an entirely different planet!
Deep within our planet lies a mysterious, patchy layer known as the D” layer. Located a staggering 3,000 kilometers (1,860 miles) below the surface, this zone sits just above the boundary separating Earth’s molten outer core from its solid mantle. Unlike a perfect sphere, the D” layer’s thickness varies drastically around the globe, with some regions completely lacking this layer altogether – much like how continents poke through the oceans on Earth’s surface.
These striking variations have long puzzled geophysicists, who describe the D” layer as heterogeneous, meaning non-uniform in its composition. However, a new study might finally shed light on this deep enigma, proposing that the D” layer could be a remnant of another planet that collided with Earth during its early days, billions of years ago.
The findings, in a nutshell
The research, published in National Science Review and led by Dr. Qingyang Hu from the Center for High Pressure Science and Technology Advanced Research and Dr. Jie Deng from Princeton University, draws upon the widely accepted Giant Impact hypothesis. This hypothesis suggests that a Mars-sized object violently collided with the proto-Earth, creating a global ocean of molten rock, or magma, in the aftermath.
Hu and Deng believe the D” layer’s unique composition may be the leftover fallout from this colossal impact, potentially holding valuable clues about our planet’s formation. A key aspect of their theory involves the presence of substantial water within this ancient magma ocean. While the origin of this water remains up for debate, the researchers are focusing on what happened as the molten rock began to cool.
“The prevailing view,” Dr. Deng explains in a media release, “suggests that water would have concentrated towards the bottom of the magma ocean as it cooled. By the final stages, the magma closest to the core could have contained water volumes comparable to Earth’s present-day oceans.”
Is there a hidden ocean inside the Earth?
This water-rich environment at the bottom of the magma ocean would have created extreme pressure and temperature conditions, fostering unique chemical reactions between water and minerals.
“Our research suggests this hydrous magma ocean favored the formation of an iron-rich phase called iron-magnesium peroxide,” Dr. Hu elaborates.
This peroxide, which has a chemical formula of (Fe,Mg)O2, has an even stronger affinity for iron compared to other major components expected in the lower mantle.
“According to our calculation, its affinity to iron could have led to the accumulation of iron-dominant peroxide in layers ranging from several to tens of kilometers thick,” Hu explains.
The presence of such an iron-rich peroxide phase would alter the mineral composition of the D” layer, deviating from our current understanding. According to the new model proposed by Hu and Deng, minerals in the D” layer would be dominated by an assemblage of iron-poor silicate, iron-rich (Fe,Mg) peroxide, and iron-poor (Fe,Mg) oxide. Interestingly, this iron-dominant peroxide also possesses unique properties that could explain some of the D” layer’s puzzling geophysical features, such as ultra-low velocity zones and layers of high electrical conductance — both of which contribute to the D” layer’s well-known compositional heterogeneity.
NEW YORK — The average American spends nearly two and a half hours a day “dreamscrolling” — looking at dream purchases or things they’d like to one day own. While some might think you’re just wasting your day, a whopping 71% say it’s time well spent, as the habit motivates them to reach their financial goals.
In a recent poll of 2,000 U.S. adults, more than two in five respondents say they spend more time dreamscrolling when the economy is uncertain (43%). Over a full year, that amounts to about 873 hours or nearly 36 days spent scrolling.
Conducted by OnePoll on behalf of financial services company Empower, the survey reveals half of the respondents say they dreamscroll while at work. Of those daydreaming employees, one in five admit to spending between three and four hours a day multitasking while at their job.
Gen Zers spend the most time dreamscrolling at just over three hours per day, while boomers spend the least, clocking in around an hour of fantasy purchases and filling wish lists. Americans say looking at dream purchases makes it easier for them to be smart with their money (56%), avoid making unplanned purchases or going into debt (30%), and better plan to achieve their financial goals (25%).
Nearly seven in 10 see dreamscrolling as an investment in themselves (69%) and an outlet for them to envision what they want out of life (67%). Four in 10 respondents (42%) say they regularly spend time picturing their ideal retirement — including their retirement age, location, and monthly expenses.
Many respondents are now taking the American dream online, with one in five respondents scrolling through listings of dream homes or apartments. Meanwhile, some are just browsing through vacation destinations (25%), beauty or self-care products (23%), and items for their pets (19%). Many others spend time looking at clothing, shoes, and accessories (49%), gadgets and technology (30%), and home décor or furniture (29%).
More than half (56%) currently have things left open in tabs and windows or saved in shopping carts that they’d like to purchase or own in the future. For those respondents, they estimate it would cost about $86,593.40 to afford everything they currently have saved.
Almost half of Americans say they are spending more time dreamscrolling now than in previous years (45%), and 56% plan on buying something on their dream list before this year wraps. While 65% are optimistic they’ll be able to one day buy everything on their list, nearly one in four say they don’t think they’ll ever be able to afford the majority of items (23%).
More than half (51%) say owning their dream purchases would make them feel more financially secure, and close to half say working with a financial professional would help them reach their goals (47%). Others feel they have more work to do: 34% say they’ve purchased fewer things on their dream list than they should at their age, with millennials feeling the most behind (39%).
Rising prices (54%), the inability to save money (29%), and growing debt (21%) are the top economic factors that may be holding some Americans back. Instead of doom spending, dreamscrolling has had a positive impact on Americans’ money habits: respondents say they better understand their financial goals (24%) as a result.
Visiting looking at the Mona Lisa (Credit: pixabay.com)
In the pantheon of Renaissance art, Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa stands as an unrivalled icon. This half-length portrait is more than just an artistic masterpiece; it embodies the allure of an era marked by unparalleled cultural flourishing.
Yet, beneath the surface of the Mona Lisa’s elusive smile lies a debate that touches the very essence of the Renaissance, its politics and the role of women in history.
A mystery woman
The intrigue of the Mona Lisa, also known as La Gioconda, isn’t solely due to Leonardo’s revolutionary painting techniques. It’s also because the identity of the subject is unconfirmed to this day. More than half a century since it was first painted, the real identity of the Mona Lisa remains one of art’s greatest mysteries, intriguing scholars and enthusiasts alike.
A Mona Lisa painting from the workshop of Leonardo da Vinci, held in the collection of the Museo del Prado in Madrid, Spain. Collection of the Museo del Prado
The painting has traditionally been associated with Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Florentine silk merchant Francesco del Giocondo. But another compelling theory suggests a different sitter: Isabella of Aragon.
Isabella of Aragon was born into the illustrious House of Aragon in Naples, in 1470. She was a princess who was deeply entwined in the political and cultural fabric of the Renaissance.
Her 1490 marriage to Gian Galeazzo Sforza, Duke of Milan, positioned Isabella at the heart of Italian politics. And this role was both complicated and elevated by the ambitions and machinations of Ludovico Sforza (also called Ludovico il Moro), her husband’s uncle and usurper of the Milanese dukedom.
In The Virgin and Child with Four Saints and Twelve Devotees, by (unknown) Master of the Pala Sforzesca, circa 1490, Gian Galeazzo Sforza is shown in prayer facing his wife, Isabella of Aragon (identified by her heraldic red and gold). National Gallery
Scholarly perspectives
The theory that Isabella is the real Mona Lisa is supported by a combination of stylistic analyses, historical connections and reinterpretations of Leonardo’s intent as an artist.
In his biography of Leonardo, author Robert Payne points to preliminary studies by the artist that bear a striking resemblances to Isabella around age 20. Payne suggests Leonardo captured Isabella across different life stages, including during widowhood, as depicted in the Mona Lisa.
U.S. artist Lillian F. Schwartz’s 1988 study used x-rays to reveal an initial sketch of a woman hidden beneath Leonardo’s painting. This sketch was then painted over with Leonardo’s own likeness.
Schwartz believes the woman in the sketch is Isabella, because of its similarity with a cartoon Leonardo made of the princess. She proposes the work was made by integrating specific features of the initial model with Leonardo’s own features.
An illustration of Isabella of Aragon from the Story of Cremona by Antonio Campi. Library of Congress
This hypothesis is further supported by art historians Jerzy Kulski and Maike Vogt-Luerssen.
According to Vogt-Luerssen’s detailed analysis of the Mona Lisa, the symbols of the Sforza house and the depiction of mourning garb both align with Isabella’s known life circumstances. They suggest the Mona Lisa isn’t a commissioned portrait, but a nuanced representation of a woman’s journey through triumph and tragedy.
Similarly, Kulski highlights the portrait’s heraldic designs, which would be atypical for a silk merchant’s wife. He, too, suggests the painting shows Isabella mourning her late husband.
The Mona Lisa’s enigmatic expression also captures Isabella’s self-described state post-1500 of being “alone in misfortune.” Contrary to representing a wealthy, recently married woman, the portrait exudes the aura of a virtuous widow.
Late professor of art history Joanna Woods-Marsden suggested the Mona Lisa transcends traditional portraiture and embodies Leonardo’s ideal, rather than being a straightforward commission.
This perspective frames the work as a deeply personal project for Leonardo, possibly signifying a special connection between him and Isabella. Leonardo’s reluctance to part with the work also indicates a deeper, personal investment in it.
Beyond the canvas
The theory that Isabella of Aragon could be the true Mona Lisa is a profound reevaluation of the painting’s context, opening up new avenues through which to appreciate the work.
It elevates Isabella from a figure overshadowed by the men in her life, to a woman of courage and complexity who deserves recognition in her own right.
The Earth beneath our feet may feel solid, stable, and seemingly eternal. But the continents we call home are unique among our planetary neighbors, and their formation has long been a mystery to scientists. Now, researchers believe they may have uncovered a crucial piece of the puzzle: the role of ancient weathering in shaping Earth’s “cratons,” the most indestructible parts of our planet’s crust.
Cratons are the old souls of the continents, forming roughly half of Earth’s continental crust. Some date back over three billion years and have remained largely unchanged ever since. They form the stable hearts around which the rest of the continents have grown. For decades, geologists have wondered what makes these regions so resilient, even as the plates shift and collide around them.
It turns out that the key may lie not in the depths of the Earth but on its surface. A new study out of Penn State and published in Nature suggests that subaerial weathering – the breakdown of rocks exposed to air – may have triggered a chain of events that led to the stabilization of cratons billions of years ago, during the Neoarchaean era, around 2.5 to 3 billion years ago.
These ancient metamorphic rocks called gneisses, found on the Arctic Coast, represent the roots of the continents now exposed at the surface. The scientists said sedimentary rocks interlayered in these types of rocks would provide a heat engine for stabilizing the continents. Credit: Jesse Reimink. All Rights Reserved.
To understand how this happened, let’s take a step way back in time. In the Neoarchaean, Earth was a very different place. The atmosphere contained little oxygen, and the continents were mostly submerged beneath a global ocean. But gradually, land began to poke above the waves – a process called continental emergence.
As more rock was exposed to air, weathering rates increased dramatically. When rocks weather, they release their constituent minerals, including radioactive elements like uranium, thorium, and potassium. These heat-producing elements, or HPEs, are crucial because their decay generates heat inside the Earth over billions of years.
The researchers propose that as the HPEs were liberated by weathering, they were washed into sediments that accumulated in the oceans. Over time, plate tectonic processes would have carried these sediments deep into the crust, where the concentrated HPEs could really make their presence felt.
Buried at depth and heated from within, the sediments would have started to melt. This would have driven what geologists call “crustal differentiation” – the separation of the continental crust into a lighter, HPE-rich upper layer and a denser, HPE-poor lower layer. It’s this layering, the researchers argue, that gave cratons their extraordinary stability.
The upper crust, enriched in HPEs, essentially acted as a thermal blanket, keeping the lower crust and the mantle below relatively cool and strong. This prevented the kind of large-scale deformation and recycling that affected younger parts of the continents.
Interestingly, the timing of craton stabilization around the globe supports this idea. The researchers point out that in many cratons, the appearance of HPE-enriched sedimentary rocks precedes the formation of distinctive Neoarchaean granites – the kinds of rocks that would form from the melting of HPE-rich sediments.
The rocks on the left are old rocks that have been deformed and altered many times. They are juxtaposed next to an Archean granite on the right side. The granite is the result of melting that led to the stabilization of the continental crust. Credit: Matt Scott. All Rights Reserved.
Furthermore, metamorphic rocks – rocks transformed by heat and pressure deep in the crust – also record a history consistent with the model. Many cratons contain granulite terranes, regions of the deep crust uplifted to the surface that formed in the Neoarchaean. These granulites often have compositions that suggest they formed from the melting of sedimentary rocks.
So, the sequence of events – the emergence of continents, increased weathering, burial of HPE-rich sediments, deep crustal melting, and finally, craton stabilization – all seem to line up.
Move over Usain Bolt, because in the animal kingdom, speed takes on a whole new meaning! Forget sprinting at a measly 28 mph – these record-breaking creatures can leave you in the dust (or water, or sky) with their mind-blowing velocity. From lightning-fast cheetahs hunting down prey on the African savanna to majestic peregrine falcons diving from incredible heights, these animals rely on their extreme speed to survive and thrive in the wild. So, buckle up as we explore the top seven fastest animals on Earth.
The animal kingdom is brimming with speedsters across different habitats. We’re talking about fish that can zoom by speedboats, birds that plummet from the sky at breakneck speeds, and even insects with lightning-fast reflexes. Below is our list of the consensus top seven fastest animals in the world. We want to hear from you too! Have you ever encountered an animal with incredible speed? Share your stories in the comments below, and let’s celebrate the awe-inspiring power of nature’s speed demons!
The List: Fastest Animals in the World, Per Wildlife Experts
1. Peregrine Falcon – 242 MPH
Peregrine Falcon (Photo by Vincent van Zalinge on Unsplash)
The peregrine falcon takes the title of the fastest animal in the world, able to achieve speeds of 242 miles per hour. These birds don’t break the sound barrier by flapping their wings like crazy. Instead, they use gravity as their accomplice, raves The Wild Life. In a blink of an eye, the falcon can plummet towards its prey, like a fighter jet in a vertical dive. These dives can exceed 200 miles per hour, which is the equivalent of a human running at over 380 mph! That’s fast enough to make even the speediest sports car look like a snail.
That prominent bulge of this falcon’s chest cavity isn’t just for show – it’s a keel bone, and it acts like a supercharged engine for their flight muscles. A bigger keel bone translates to more powerful wing strokes, propelling the falcon forward with incredible force, explains A-Z Animals. These birds also boast incredibly stiff, tightly packed feathers that act like a high-performance suit, reducing drag to an absolute minimum. And the cherry on top? Their lungs and air sacs are designed for one-way airflow, meaning they’re constantly topped up with fresh oxygen, even when exhaling. This ensures they have the fuel they need to maintain their breakneck dives.
These fast falcons might be the ultimate jet setters of the bird world, but they’re not picky about their digs. The sky-dwelling predators are comfortable calling a variety of landscapes home, as long as there’s open space for hunting, writes One Kind Planet. They can be found soaring over marshes, estuaries, and even skyscrapers, always on the lookout for unsuspecting prey.
2. Golden Eagle – 200 MPH
Golden Eagle (Photo by Mark van Jaarsveld on Unsplash)
The golden eagle is a large bird that is well known for its powerful and fast flight. These majestic birds can reach speeds of up to 199 mph during a hunting dive, says List 25. Just like the peregrine falcon, the golden eagle uses a hunting technique called a stoop. With a powerful tuck of its wings, the eagle plummets towards its target in a breathtaking dive.
They are undeniably impressive birds, with a wingspan that can stretch up to eight feet wide! Imagine an athlete being able to run at 179 miles per hour! That’s what a golden eagle achieves in a dive, reaching speeds of up to 87 body lengths per second, mentions The Wild Life. The air rushes past its feathers, creating a whistling sound as it picks up, hurtling toward its prey.
They also use these impressive dives during courtship rituals and even playful moments, states Live Science. Picture two golden eagles soaring in tandem, one diving after the other in a dazzling aerial ballet. It’s a display of both power and grace that reaffirms their status as the ultimate rulers of the skies. Their habitat range stretches across the northern hemisphere, including North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). So next time you see a golden eagle circling above, remember – it’s more than just a bird, it’s a living embodiment of speed, skill, and breathtaking beauty.
3. Black Marlin – 80 MPH
A Black Marlin jumping out of the water (Photo by Finpat on Shutterstock)
The ocean is a vast and mysterious realm, teeming with incredible creatures. And when it comes to raw speed, the black marlin is a high-performance athlete of the sea. They have a deep, muscular body built for cutting through water with minimal resistance, informs Crosstalk. Think of a sleek racing yacht compared to a clunky rowboat. Plus, their dorsal fin is lower and rounder, acting like a spoiler on a race car, reducing drag and allowing for a smoother ride through the water. Their “spears,” those sharp protrusions on their snouts, are thicker and more robust than other marlins. These aren’t just for show – they’re used to slash and stun prey during a hunt.
Some scientists estimate their burst speed at a respectable 22 mph. That’s impressive, but here’s where the debate gets interesting. Some reports claim black marlin can pull fishing line at a staggering 120 feet per second! When you do the math, that translates to a whopping 82 mph, according to Story Teller. This magnificent fish calls shallow, warm shores home, their ideal habitat boasts water temperatures between 59 to 86 degrees Fahrenheit. – basically, a permanent summer vacation!
The secret behind its impressive swimming prowess lies in its tail. Unlike the rounded tails of many fish, black marlin possess crescent-shaped tails, explains A-Z Animals. With a powerful flick, they can propel themselves forward with incredible bursts of speed. This marlin also boasts a long, thin, and sharp bill that cuts through water, offering minimal resistance as it surges forward. But that’s not all. Black marlin also have rigid pectoral fins that act like perfectly sculpted wings. These fins aren’t for flapping – they provide stability and lift, allowing the marlin to maintain a streamlined position in the water.
4. Cheetah – 70 MPH
Adult and cheetah pup on green grass during daytime (Photo by Sammy Wong on Unsplash)
The cheetah is Africa’s most endangered large cat and also the world’s fastest land animal. Their bodies are built for pure velocity, with special adaptations that allow them to go from zero to sixty in a mind-blowing three seconds, shares Animals Around The Globe. Each stride stretches an incredible seven meters, eating up the ground with astonishing speed. But they can only maintain their high speeds for short bursts.
Unlike its stockier lion and tiger cousins, the cheetah boasts a lean, streamlined physique that makes them aerodynamic. But the real innovation lies in the cheetah’s spine. It’s not just a rigid bone structure – it’s a flexible marvel, raves A-Z Animals. With each powerful push, this springy spine allows the cheetah to extend its strides to incredible lengths, propelling it forward with tremendous force. And finally, we come to the engine room: the cheetah’s muscles. Packed with a high concentration of “fast-twitch fibers,” these muscles are specifically designed for explosive bursts of speed. Think of them as tiny, built-in turbochargers that give the cheetah that extra surge of power when it needs it most.
These magnificent cats haven’t always been confined to the dry, open grasslands of sub-Saharan Africa. Cheetahs were once widespread across both Africa and Asia, but their range has shrunk dramatically due to habitat loss and dwindling prey populations, says One Kind Planet. Today, most cheetahs call protected natural reserves and parks home.
